Colonel colin mackenzie (1754–1821) was stunned as he encountered, in what is now central Karnataka, an immense landscape filled with temples, thousands of enormous statues, small shrines and ancient buildings stretching as far as the eye could see. The year was 1800, and Mackenzie—a Scottish officer in the British East India Company and the first Surveyor General of India—had rediscovered the ruins of the greatest Hindu empire of the 14th through 16th centuries: Vijayanagara. Unlike many of his fellow officers, Mackenzie relied on a number of “native” advisors, including a Telugu Brahmin named Venkata Lechmiah, who helped decipher many of the carved inscriptions and piece together the extraordinary and tragic history of the Vijayanagara Empire. Here is that story.
By François Gautier, Delhi
All Photos by: Ravi Deo/Dall•E
The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka, South India. It stands even today as one of the last and greatest bastions of Hindu civilization in medieval India. It was forged in the midst of political upheaval when the whole of southern India was in danger of falling completely under Islamic control. Only the areas south of the Tungabhadra, including the Hoysala kingdom, remained under Hindu rule. At this desperate hour, two brothers, Harihara and Bukkaraya, rose to stop the Hindu decline and put a halt to the escalating madness. Without them, Indian history would have undoubtedly taken a different turn, reducing Hinduism to insignificance.
The City of Victory
The founders are fondly referred to as Hukka and Bukka. Their story starts in the early years of the 14th century. Their father, Sangama, was a powerful chief in the service of the king of a small Hindu kingdom known as Kampili (now part of Karnataka state). It was situated on the northern banks of the Tungabhadra River, a tributary of the Krishna River. The two brothers sought to claim back the small kingdom of Kampili, which had been taken over by Muslims. This was the beginning of what went on to become one of the finest Hindu empires the world has ever seen. They appropriately called the empire Vijayanagara meaning, “City of Victory.” The brothers derived their inspiration from a great sage named Vidyaranya.
Vidyaranya was born into a poor Brahmin family and studied the scriptures with distinction. He was known as Madhava until he was initiated as a sadhu. From a young age he had a hunch that he was destined to do great things. He spent a quarter of a century patiently waiting for the right opportunity. He began to fast regularly and led a very simple life. He meditated, prayed, planned and waited. He read history and books on good governance and came to the conclusion that only a strong leadership, one free from selfishness and corruption, is capable of guiding a kingdom or a country to greatness. His energy and determination grew with the passage of time, and he wrote many books, including one on how to tame the mind and achieve liberation. Another focused on the life of Adi Shankaracharya.
Hukka and Bukka met Vidyaranya by an accident of fate. Like Vidyaranya, Hukka and Bukka had been through their own struggles; they had taken part in wars and witnessed the destruction of temples and upheaval of families. One day they saw a pack of hounds chasing a hare. Halfway through the chase, the hare suddenly turned around and—amazingly—the hounds fled in terror as the hare gave chase. As they reflected on the bizarre phenomenon, they encountered Vidyaranya, sitting cross-legged in meditation. The sage knew instinctively his wait was over.
A day was set for the inauguration of the kingdom. A flag was designed with a boar (the symbol of Lord Vishnu), a sun, moon and a dagger, signifying strength. On the seventh day of the auspicious month of Vaishakha, in the year 1336, everyone gathered at the site. An elaborate religious ceremony was conducted by Vidyaranya and well-known pandits.
As the smoke rose from the sacred fire, Hukka was declared the first ruler of the then tiny kingdom and given the title of Harihara I. Vidyaranya was appointed the first prime minister. Bukka was made the crown prince. One of the first things they did was to embark on the task of building and training a strong army. Messages were sent to chiefdoms and small kingdoms to join in as allies.
Hukka and Bukka followed their guru’s advice faithfully and set out on a policy of expansion. In 1346, Hukka managed to defeat the Hoysala Empire to their south. This was a very big achievement, as the Hindu ruler had been constantly at war with Vijayanagara. The area to the north of Vijayanagara was under the Tughlaq dynasty’s control. This was a Turkish dynasty that ruled from Delhi in the 14th century and whose territory extended up to Karnataka. The Tughlaq armies were instructed to keep attacking Vijayanagara until the Hindu kingdom fell. Vijayanagara had to build several new forts across its northern boundary to check the constant Muslim threat. The river Tungabhadra served as a natural barrier making it difficult for soldiers to penetrate. Moreover, Vijayanagara’s forces grew stronger by the day and were able to rebuff attacks and keep the line of control intact. Hukka died in 1356, leaving behind a growing empire and an able system of civil administration. After Hukka, Bukka reigned as Bukka Raya I and continued the policy of expansion under the guidance of Vidyaranya.
In 1358, the Bahmani sultanate—the Persian sultanate that ruled over the Deccan Plateau in India in the 14th century—launched a ferocious attack on Vijayanagara. Both sides made claims to territories in each other’s empires. Bukka sent an army of twenty thousand soldiers and emerged as the winner. Bukka died in 1377, leaving behind a large empire, that encompassed most of south India below the Krishna River. Even Goa came under its rule for a brief period.
One of the many projects Bukka launched was the writing of commentaries on the Vedas, to make the vast Vedic knowledge more accessible. He was a great patron of poetry and literature. He treated all his subjects, including Jews, Christians and Muslims, equally without any appeasement or disfavor towards any community.
The Empire Expands
Vidyaranya continued to hold the post of prime minister under the third monarch, Harihara II. The monarch erected many famous and majestic temples and buildings and promoted arts, literature, architecture, science, dance, music, religious movements, irrigation and water preservation methods. Military academies with vast grounds were opened where soldiers and elephants were trained to inflict maximum damage in the battlefields. Large sharp blades were tied to elephant tusks. Huge factories churned out armor and weapons. At the same time, soldiers were schooled in Hindu values that restrained them from indulging in rape, looting or harming the defenseless. He also built a navy, so as to expand his kingdom and trade with other nations, sending his ships as far as Cambodia.
In 1386, at the age of 85, Vidyaranya retired from his post, happy that he had succeeded in creating foundations for Ram Raj—meaning a kingdom that embodies goodness, justice and spiritual values in the spirit of Lord Rama—and ushered in a new age or renaissance of Hindu society and culture. The Bhakti Movement received new impetus. People sang bhajans in praise of God, visited temples and pilgrimage places without fear—something that had become unthinkable under the Sultans. Hindu pride was restored and Vidyaranya was able to retire with his head held high.
Vijayanagara continued to grow from strength to strength after Vidyaranya’s passing. The capital city occupied an area of 64 square miles and became internationally known. Besides hundreds of temples, palaces and public buildings, there were military bases to house the million-strong army. It became a great maritime power and traded with Malaysia, China, Ceylon, Cambodia, Indonesia and what are now the Gulf states, and exchanged envoys with them. Nearly ten ports were developed on the coast. During this time, many Indians settled in places like Ceylon and Malaysia. Education was given a lot of attention, with schools and universities established based on the ancient Hindu systems. Besides arts, literature, math, science, architecture and languages, yoga and ayurvedic instructions were given. Students were taught ancient scriptures and the true meaning of Vedanta as propagated by Adi Shankaracharya. Because of the rapid development, there was always a shortage of masons, architects and sculptors.
Respect was accorded to all religions. Jains, Buddhists and Muslims were allowed freedom of worship. Mosques and temples were built for them. This starkly contrasted with what was happening elsewhere in India, where those undertaking jihad were busy knocking down Hindu temples. The breaking of places of worship goes against the Hindu ethos, and there is no place for forced conversions in Hinduism. The Europeans began to come to Vijayanagara, especially in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and were astounded at the grandeur and wealth they saw. They gave accounts of the city in glowing terms and agreed that not Venice nor any other European city could match it. For instance, merchant Niccolò de’ Conti and the Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Fernão Nunes visited Vijayanagara and were greatly impressed. They wrote detailed accounts describing the city’s magnificence. The Portuguese chronicler Fernão Nunes exclaimed: “The city is such that the pupil of the eye has never seen a place like it, and the ear of intelligence has never been informed that there existed anything to equal in the world.”
The kingdom reached its pinnacle under King Krishna Deva Raya, who ruled from 1509 to 1529. It became one of the world’s leading economic powers and a global center for trade. He was a wise leader with foresight; many consider him the greatest of the Vijayanagara rulers. He was a generous patron of the arts and a reputable poet; many majestic monuments, courtyards and temples sprang up under him. He encouraged farming and was instrumental in devising an advanced system of irrigation. Barbosa, another Portuguese visitor, tells us: “The king allows such freedom that every man may come and go and live according to his own creed without suffering any annoyance, and without inquiry, whether he is a Christian, Jew, Moor [Muslim] or heathen. Great equality and justice are observed by all, not only by the ruler but by the people to one another.”
Between 1347 and 1518, the Bahmani Empire made consistent and aggressive attacks on Vijayanagara without success. Each defeat was frustrating, but the Islamists never gave up. It did not matter that they lagged behind economically; they were simply consumed by feelings of revenge and continued the attacks. King Krishna Deva Raya personally fought more than a dozen battles with his unfriendly northern neighbors. One of the famous battles he fought was in 1520, over Raichur, a well-fortified center situated on the fertile land between the rivers Tungabhadra and Krishna. An army of nearly one million, with over 30,000 horses and more than 500 elephants, advanced towards Raichur. The infantry—which included musketeers, bowmen and spearmen—led the onslaught. Ismail Adil Shah of Bijapur, who had superior firepower, marched southwards with 140,000 horse and foot soldiers. Lives were lost on both sides in the thousands, but in the end victory was Krishna Deva Raya’s. He entered the captured area in triumph but refrained from inflicting further damage or loss of life. A rattled Shah fled and gave up the idea of any further adventures against Vijayanagara.
The Slow Decline
After Krishna Deva Raya’s passing in 1529, the quality of leadership started to decline. He left behind instructions that his half brother should be the next ruler, as his own son, Sadashiva, was still in infancy. This upset many who considered either themselves or the infant son as the rightful successors. The lessons taught by Vidyaranya, Hukka and Bukka were being forgotten. Sadashiva, a weak leader, was made king in 1543. In 1552 he had to recognize a brilliant leader named Rama Raya as his co-regent. Sadashiva almost destroyed the civil service that ran the empire efficiently by giving the top posts to his family members and henchmen. His greatest mistake was to enlist a large number of Muslim mercenaries into Vijayanagara’s army. He also began to interfere in the affairs of Muslim kingdoms surrounding Vijayanagara. Annoyed by this, and with the memory of the defeat at Raichur still lurking in their minds, some Muslim states decided to join hands to tackle the prosperous infidel kingdom and settle scores once and for all. United they stood a better chance. Jointly they declared jihad against Vijayanagara in 1565. The decisive battle was fought on the southern banks of the River Krishna. The war lasted for nearly six months. It was known as the Rakshasi-Tangadi conflict. Several battles were fought during the six months and the Hindu empire’s army won many. Yet its downfall began to emerge as more and more Muslim soldiers and commanders began to change sides. Some adjoining Muslim states had declared neutrality and promised not to participate in the war, but failed to keep their word. Such treachery resulted in the defeat of Hindus, and the City of Victory fell.
The victorious Hussain Nizam Shah paraded the severed head of Rama Raya and exclaimed: “Now I am avenged of thee! Let God do what he will to me!” The believers took their time in decimating the city. Slowly and unhindered, over a period of six months, they went on a rampage. They systematically stripped gold and precious stones from the engravings of the walls of palaces, temples and magnificent monuments, and the treasury was looted. The plunder was so great that every man in the allied army became rich in gold, jewels, arms, horses and slaves; the sultans let every person keep what he had acquired, only taking elephants for their own use. When they left, the city had been reduced to nothing but rubble and had become a ghost town.
Robert Sewell, a civil servant of the East India Company, who authored The Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagara writes: “Never perhaps in the history of the world has such havoc been wrought, and wrought so suddenly, on so splendid a city; teeming with a wealthy and industrious population in the full plenitude of prosperity one day, and on the next seized, pillaged, and reduced to ruins, amid scenes of savage massacre and horrors begging description.” The surviving ruins stand as a testimony to the greatness of Hukka, Bukka and Vidyaranya, whose vision led to the formation of the great Hindu Empire. The ruins teach us many valuable lessons, including the importance of having the right leadership in the country. They tell us that the country is safe only in the hands of selfless and fearless leaders; only they can leave behind a proud legacy. There is still evidence—most notably at the rare ruins of Hampi—of the greatness of Hindu Dharma. Regardless, the lessons from the period are as relevant today as they were centuries ago; Hindus salute Hukka, Bukka and Vidyaranya, forgotten heroes of India.
Poets and chroniclers continue to celebrate Krishna Deva Raya in popular lore. Even today, folk songs in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh speak of the grandeur of the “Rayas.” The ruins of Hampi, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, attract scholars, tourists and pilgrims alike. The sense of awe that surrounds its stones and sculptures (all of which have chopped noses and ears, as the statues were too massive to destroy completely) speaks not only of a vanished past but of a civilization that achieved greatness through synthesis — of art and war, of religion and trade, of openness and identity. What makes Vijayanagara truly unique is its adaptability. It absorbed foreign influences without losing its core Hindu character. It welcomed Muslims into its army and traded with Christians from Portugal, yet built temples with unparalleled devotion and scale. It built bridges—literal and cultural—between India’s North and South, East and West.
Although the fall of Vijayanagara was swift and violent, its story did not end there. The echoes of its glory resonate in South Indian classical music, in the stone chariots and gopurams of temples, and in the popular memory of its rulers. The empire stands as a powerful reminder of what can be achieved when tradition and innovation coexist, and when diversity is embraced without compromising cultural identity.
An Empire Emerges
At Home, Traditional Learning Flourished as World Trade Expanded
The Empire’s Final Battle and Destruction
The Shivaji Maharaj Museum of Indian History
The Museum: All the paintings depicted in this article belong to the Shivaji Maharaj Museum of Indian History, situated in Pune, which François Gautier and his wife Namrita have built. It has today 23 pavilions, among them one entirely dedicated to the story of Vijayanagara, as well as the unique Bharat Mata or Mother India temple, dedicated to another great Hindu hero warrior—Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. This is a seva project, as François and Namrita feel that they owe a debt of gratitude to Bharat. Entry is free. Last year nearly 15,000 visitors came to the museum, many of them schoolchildren, learning the true history of their country. If you want to contribute to this noble project, you can donate either in rupees or in dollars, as the museum has both US and Indian tax exemption:
www.factmuseum.com/services
francoisgautier26@gmail.com
The Artists: Ravindra Deo has an art degree from Abhinav Kala Mahavidyalaya in Pune, India. His work has appeared in the Balgandharva Art Gallery, Pune, the Nehru Centre Art Gallery in Mumbai and many more shows. He’s participated in art demonstrations at schools across India. He has been running an advertising agency for the past 25 years. Anjali Hugay is also based in Pune. She studied fine arts at Chesapeake Fine Arts Studio in Maryland. She has displayed her work in many solo and group exhibitions and done commissioned work for customers in both in India and worldwide. www.facebook.com/artistanjali/.
